Appendix C: Why AOSP Doesn't Adopt Kotlin for Public Framework APIs

A reader new to AOSP quickly notices an asymmetry. Kotlin is everywhere in the upper layers of the tree — SystemUI, Settings, Launcher3, parts of CTS. Yet the public framework APIs that apps compile against are still defined in Java. This appendix lays out the constraints that produce that asymmetry. It is not advocacy and does not predict when, or whether, the situation will change.

It collects the engineering facts: where Kotlin is allowed and where it is not. It also covers the binary contract that gates the difference and the toolchain that enforces that contract. After reading it, you should be able to look at any class in frameworks/base/. You should be able to predict whether Kotlin source there is risk-free or whether it would break something.

The rule the appendix builds toward is straightforward: trace the class outward to its nearest API boundary. If the boundary is a current.txt member, an @SystemApi, a module-library export, or anything else that apps or vendor code links against, the freeze applies. Kotlin source there imports kotlinc-emission risk. If the boundary is intra-process and recompiles in lock-step with the framework — a LocalServices interface, a binder server stub, a SystemUI internal — Kotlin is safe. The precise definition of "public API" used throughout the appendix is in the section titled "The Public API Contract".

The appendix is organized to be read top to bottom but the sections can be consulted independently. The engineering core is "The Java/Kotlin ABI Gap" and "Toolchain Lock-In". The surrounding sections frame the freeze and expand it to vendor and Mainline surfaces. They also inventory where Kotlin already lives safely inside the platform.

A note on sourcing. Every concrete file path and tool name comes from inspecting the AOSP checkout directly. Where the appendix speaks in terms of scale, those figures were measured at one point in time. They will drift as the tree evolves. The orders of magnitude are what the argument depends on.

The Asymmetry

The cleanest way to see the asymmetry is to count files. Kotlin and Java sources coexist across the tree, but they cluster in very different places. Running find over the AOSP checkout produces the inventory below.

Path	Kotlin files	Notes
frameworks/base/packages/SystemUI/	8,896	The heavy adopter; system UI shell and quick settings
packages/apps/Settings/	2,300	Settings app, app-layer code
cts/	1,209	Compatibility Test Suite
packages/apps/Launcher3/	1,326	Launcher app
frameworks/base/services/	292	Production Kotlin all in the permission subsystem; most files are tests
frameworks/base/core/	45	The API-surface layer that apps call into; every file is test code
frameworks/base/ (total)	12,058	Sum across all subdirectories
frameworks/base/ Java total	18,937	Reference point for comparison

Two numbers in that table do most of the work for this appendix.

The first is 45 — or, more precisely, zero. frameworks/base/core/ is where the android.* classes that constitute the public Android SDK live. Every one of the 45 Kotlin files in this directory is test code under frameworks/base/core/tests/. The API-bearing core/java/ tree — tens of thousands of Java files — contains no Kotlin at all. That is the most direct statement of the policy. The public API surface is defined in Java.

The second is 292. frameworks/base/services/ is the home of system_server and the dozens of system services it hosts. 292 Kotlin files sounds like meaningful adoption until you look at where they sit. The large majority are tests, and every production (non-test) Kotlin file under frameworks/base/services/ is inside the permission access subtree at frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/. The major services — ActivityManagerService, PackageManagerService, WindowManagerService, the input pipeline, the display pipeline — are still Java.

The "public API" that this appendix worries about is defined in three signature files that metalava produces and validates against:

• frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt — the canonical public Android SDK signature. The in-tree copy is ~4 MB, in metalava's "Signature format: 6.0".
• frameworks/base/services/api/current.txt — the system-services API surface exposed to in-process callers.
• The corresponding system-current.txt and module-lib-current.txt siblings are under frameworks/base/*/api/. They define the @SystemApi surface (visible to platform components signed with the platform key) and the module-library surface (visible to Mainline modules at compile time).

These signature files are language-neutral text. Nothing in them depends on whether the implementing source was written in Java or Kotlin. But, as the rest of this appendix shows, the JVM signatures they describe are not equally stable to produce from the two languages.

A second observation worth registering before the diagram: the inventory does not say Kotlin is unsafe in frameworks/base/. It says Kotlin is absent from the public API surface specifically. There are 45 Kotlin files under frameworks/base/core/ (all tests) and 292 under frameworks/base/services/ (the production subset, in the permission subsystem, compiles, ships, and runs). The boundary between safe and unsafe runs through individual classes, not through directories. A Kotlin class in frameworks/base/core/ that never appears in current.txt would be just internal code that happens to live in the API-bearing directory. The classification is by whether metalava picks the class up, not by where it lives in the source tree.

A third observation: the directional asymmetry. SystemUI and the Settings app live "below" the framework in the dependency graph — they consume the public API surface but do not contribute to it. Their freedom to use Kotlin is unconstrained because nothing depends on their internal class shapes.

The framework, in contrast, sits "above" them. Its classes are what apps and vendor code link against. Freedom there is bought at the cost of binary stability. The same Kotlin source pattern that is risk-free in SystemUI is risk-bearing in frameworks/base/core/java/android/.

Where Kotlin is allowed across the AOSP API surface layers.

graph TB
    subgraph PublicAPI["Public API surface"]
        PA["android.* classes<br/>frozen for SDK lifetime<br/>Java only"]
    end
    subgraph SystemAPI["@SystemApi surface"]
        SA["@SystemApi classes<br/>frozen per Mainline cadence<br/>Java only"]
    end
    subgraph ModuleLib["module_lib surface"]
        ML["Inter-module APIs<br/>Java only"]
    end
    subgraph Hidden["Internal / @hide"]
        H["Hidden APIs<br/>Java + Kotlin OK"]
    end
    subgraph Impl["Implementation"]
        S["services, system apps,<br/>CTS, support libs<br/>Java + Kotlin OK"]
    end

    PA --> H
    SA --> H
    ML --> H
    H --> S

The diagram is not a build-time dependency graph. It is a freedom-of-language map. Each higher box constrains itself to Java so that the languages used below it cannot leak through. A class in android.* may end up calling a Kotlin implementation in a service. But the call goes through a binder interface or a manager-class facade whose signature is Java-shaped. The point at which a method is exposed to apps is the point at which Kotlin stops.

The Public API Contract

The phrase "public API" inside AOSP has a precise definition. It is the set of class members listed in frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt (and the adjacent system-current.txt, module-lib-current.txt, test-current.txt). This file is human-readable text. Its first lines look like:

// Signature format: 6.0
// - style=java
package android {

  public final class Manifest {
    ctor public Manifest();

Every entry is a fully resolved JVM signature: package, modifiers, return type, parameter types, exceptions. There are no Kotlin keywords in the file. This is because the format predates Kotlin and was designed to describe what the runtime sees, not what the source-level developer wrote.

The shape of an entry is worth dwelling on. A class declaration nests inside a package block, with each member declared as a single line containing:

• The visibility (public, protected).
• Modifiers in a fixed order (static, final, abstract, synchronized, native, default).
• The return type, qualified by package.
• The member name.
• For methods, the parameter list with each parameter typed and named.
• For methods, an optional throws clause listing checked exceptions.

The format is whitespace-significant in places (each member starts with leading spaces matching its nesting depth) but otherwise has the regularity of a generated artifact. Diff tools have no trouble showing what changed between two snapshots. This matters because almost every framework change runs through the m update-api workflow. That workflow produces a textual delta that the API council reviews member by member.

Several signature surfaces exist in parallel. These are public (current.txt), @SystemApi (system-current.txt), the module-library surface used by Mainline (module-lib-current.txt), and @TestApi (test-current.txt). There are also per- subsystem files such as frameworks/base/services/api/current.txt. They all share the same format.

Each surface is produced by metalava, a Kotlin tool at tools/metalava/. Metalava reads framework source — Java and Kotlin alike — through its default PSI source model and emits the language-neutral signature text. (An alternative Turbine-based Java-only model can be selected with --source-model-provider turbine.) The build re-runs metalava, compares the generated snapshot against the checked-in current.txt, and fails the build on any drift. Intentional additions go through m update-api plus API council review of the textual delta.

How a framework class becomes part of the public API contract.

flowchart LR
    SRC[".java framework class<br/>frameworks/base/core/java/android/..."]
    MET["metalava<br/>tools/metalava/"]
    SIG["api/current.txt<br/>signature snapshot"]
    SDK["prebuilts/sdk/N/public/<br/>android.txt + android.jar"]
    APP["App build<br/>compileSdk = N"]
    OEM["OEM device<br/>frozen at SDK N"]

    SRC --> MET
    MET --> SIG
    SIG --> SDK
    SDK --> APP
    SIG --> OEM

Once an API ships in a numbered SDK release, its signature is frozen forever. Each SDK release snapshots the surface into prebuilts/sdk/<N>/public/api/ android.txt and pins the stub jar that apps compile against at prebuilts/sdk/<N>/public/android.jar. Removing an entry, changing a parameter or return type, or changing the JVM signature behind an unchanged textual entry all count as breaking changes.

Devices bake an SDK level in at manufacture, and that determines the "stable forever" promise. A phone that launched with SDK 30 will still be running SDK 30 four or five years later (longer for OEM long-life devices). Apps targeting compileSdk = 30 must continue to install and run on that device. The OEM cannot fix a regression in the platform's binary contract by issuing a kotlinc upgrade or a metadata format update. This is because the original device's runtime classloader is what defines compatibility.

That window — roughly ten years from first ship to last realistic in-service use — is the time horizon every member of current.txt must survive. The API council applies that horizon every time it approves a new method, and once it ships the signature cannot be retracted.

The Java/Kotlin ABI Gap

The compatibility problem is not that Kotlin lacks features. It is that the mapping from Kotlin source to JVM signatures has degrees of freedom that the Java mapping does not. The kotlinc compiler, the Kotlin metadata format, and the Kotlin standard library can all evolve. When they do, the JVM-visible signatures of an unchanged source class can shift. For internal code that recompiles in lock-step with kotlinc, this is invisible. For a frozen public surface, every shift is a binary break.

This section walks through the specific feature surfaces where the mapping is unstable.

@JvmOverloads and default-arg overload freeze

Kotlin lets a function declare default values for parameters. From a single source declaration:

fun openFile(path: String, mode: Int = 0, encoding: String = "UTF-8"): File

Without an annotation, kotlinc emits a single JVM method:

openFile(Ljava/lang/String;ILjava/lang/String;)Ljava/io/File;

Java callers must pass all three arguments. With @JvmOverloads, the compiler synthesizes additional overloads — one for each truncation of trailing defaulted parameters:

openFile(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/io/File;
openFile(Ljava/lang/String;I)Ljava/io/File;
openFile(Ljava/lang/String;ILjava/lang/String;)Ljava/io/File;

On a public surface this raises two distinct freezing problems. First, the set of synthesized overloads is determined by the order of parameters: changing the order in source changes the synthesized signatures. Second, default values are encoded as $default synthetic helpers (e.g. openFile$default) that the compiler inserts into the bytecode. The presence and shape of these helpers is part of the binary surface a Java caller sees. Removing @JvmOverloads from a public class would silently delete several JVM methods and break any compiled caller. Adding a new parameter at the end (even with a default) appends new entries to the overload set, but reordering existing parameters renames them.

Within frameworks/base/services/, every @JvmOverloads usage sits under services/tests/ — mostly test utility files in displayservicetests/ like TestUtils.kt, PersistentDataStoreTestUtils.kt, DisplayDeviceConfigTestUtils.kt, and ClamperTestUtils.kt, plus one fake in servicestests/. No production service uses it. (The annotation is common in the app layer. SystemUI and Settings use it in over a hundred files between them. But those are apps consuming the SDK, not API-bearing framework code.)

The reason for its absence from production services is straightforward: production service Kotlin in AOSP only calls into Java, never the reverse. There is no Java caller in the platform services that needs the synthesized overloads.

@JvmStatic and the Companion.foo() vs Foo.foo() choice

A Kotlin companion object holds members that look like statics from inside Kotlin (MyClass.foo()) but are emitted as instance methods on a synthetic inner Companion class. Without @JvmStatic:

class Foo {
    companion object {
        fun bar() = 42
    }
}

The Java-visible signatures are:

public final class Foo
public static final class Foo$Companion
    public final int bar()
public static final Foo$Companion Foo.Companion

A Java caller writes Foo.Companion.bar(). Annotating with @JvmStatic adds a second, static, copy of the method on the outer class:

class Foo {
    companion object {
        @JvmStatic fun bar() = 42
    }
}

public final class Foo
    public static final int bar()
public static final class Foo$Companion
    public final int bar()

Now Foo.bar() works from Java too. The decision is observable in current.txt because both methods are part of the public surface. Once shipped, neither can be removed.

The AOSP usage pattern of @JvmStatic confirms the asymmetry. Every hit in frameworks/base/services/ is inside the services/tests/ subtree. There the JUnit runner (Java) needs to invoke @BeforeClass/@AfterClass methods declared on Kotlin test companions. Concrete example from ApexUpdateTest.kt:

@JvmStatic
@BeforeClassWithInfo
fun initApexHelper(testInformation: TestInformation) {
    apexInstallHelper = ApexInstallHelper(testInformation)
}

Production Kotlin avoids @JvmStatic because nothing in the platform calls those Kotlin methods from Java. Public API code, by definition, must be callable from Java apps. So every static factory or constant in a public Kotlin class would have to commit to one of these emission shapes and freeze it.

@JvmName mangling

Kotlin allows the source-level function name to differ from the JVM-level method name:

@JvmName("safeOpen")
fun open(path: String): File

The Kotlin caller writes open(path). The Java caller writes safeOpen(path). On the JVM, only safeOpen exists. Removing the @JvmName annotation (or changing its argument) renames the symbol that Java code is linked to. On a public surface, this is a hard break for every app already compiled against the previous name.

@JvmName is also implicitly applied in places the developer does not annotate. Top-level Kotlin functions compile into a synthetic class named after the source file (e.g. Utils.kt becomes UtilsKt). The class name can be customized with @file:JvmName("Utils"). The framework's API surface contract has no way to express "rename the synthesizing class" without breaking apps that resolved against the old name.

suspend functions and Continuation in JVM signatures

A suspend function in source:

suspend fun load(): Result

Becomes a JVM method whose signature appends a kotlin.coroutines.Continuation parameter:

load(Lkotlin/coroutines/Continuation;)Ljava/lang/Object;

The return type is erased to Object because the coroutine machinery delivers the result asynchronously. For an internal Kotlin caller, the source-level signature is what matters; the compiler hides the transformation. For a Java caller, the only thing visible is the JVM signature. This includes Continuation, the erased return type, and the way exceptions get wrapped into kotlin.Result boxing.

Two stability problems flow from this. First, kotlin.coroutines.Continuation is a Kotlin standard-library type. Its package, its method names, and the runtime semantics it expects must remain frozen at the JVM level. Second, the lowering of suspend to Continuation is a kotlinc implementation choice. Past Kotlin releases have considered alternative lowerings (state machines vs. CPS-style, different boxing strategies). A future kotlinc that adjusted the lowering for any reason could change the JVM signature of an unchanged source declaration.

No public Android API exposes suspend today. Coroutine-based APIs in AndroidX live above the framework SDK and ship as separate artifacts. There the suspend signatures can evolve with the AndroidX artifact's own version cadence.

inline functions exposing source bytecode

An inline function in Kotlin is not just a hint to the optimizer. It is a contract that the function's body will be inlined at every call site. Kotlin uses this for reified type parameters (which require the type to be visible at the call site, not erased) and for performance-sensitive lambda-taking APIs.

The implication for binary stability is simple. The compiled bytecode of an inline function is copied into every caller's class file. This includes every instruction in its body, even references to private helpers. Suppose the framework declares a public inline fun. If the source body changes between SDK releases, apps that compiled against the old version still contain the old body inline. Conversely, if the framework needs to fix a bug in an inline function, only newly recompiled callers see the fix.

For a platform that ships compiled apps to billions of devices, "the fix only applies if every caller rebuilds" is not viable. Java has no equivalent: static final methods can be redirected at the implementation, but the JVM resolves them through the runtime classloader. A Kotlin inline function is closer to a C++ header-defined template than to a Java method. The freezing semantics that work for Java methods do not work for inlined Kotlin bodies.

Value classes / inline classes and parameter-signature mangling

A Kotlin value class (formerly inline class) wraps a single backing value at compile time and unwraps it at the call boundary:

@JvmInline
value class UserId(val value: Long)

fun grantAccess(user: UserId)

The JVM emission for grantAccess is not grantAccess(LUserId;)V. It is mangled. kotlinc inserts a hash of the parameter shape into the method name. This avoids clashing with overloads where UserId and Long would erase to the same signature:

grantAccess-{hash}(J)V

The exact mangling scheme has been refined across Kotlin releases. The details include what gets hashed, what character separates the original name from the hash, and how synthetic constructors interact. A frozen public API cannot tolerate a change to the mangling scheme. It also cannot tolerate an overload that a developer adds inadvertently and that perturbs the hash of an existing method.

Result<T> mangling on JVM

kotlin.Result<T> is a value class. Any function returning Result<Foo> is subject to the same name-mangling that any other value-class-returning function gets:

fun fetch(): Result<Data>

Becomes something like fetch-{hash}()Ljava/lang/Object; at the JVM level. The Java type seen at the call boundary is Object because Result boxes through erasure. Direct Java consumption of a Result-returning Kotlin API is awkward at best.

The official Kotlin guidance is that Result should not appear in public Java-visible APIs. For internal code that interoperates between Kotlin callers, Result is convenient. For a public surface that must be Java-callable, it is not viable.

Companion-object INSTANCE static fields

A Kotlin object (declared at the top level, not as a companion) compiles to a class with a single static INSTANCE field:

object UriRegistry {
    fun lookup(scheme: String): Class<*>? = ...
}

Becomes:

public final class UriRegistry
    public static final UriRegistry INSTANCE
    public final Class<?> lookup(String)

A Java caller writes UriRegistry.INSTANCE.lookup("content"). The INSTANCE field is part of the binary surface. Renaming the object in Kotlin source renames the class; restructuring the singleton (for instance, splitting it into a per-user-id keyed map) deletes the INSTANCE field. Both are breaking changes for any compiled Java caller, and they appear in current.txt as field entries that must survive the SDK lifetime.

Companion object INSTANCE accessors (the Foo.Companion field generated for any class Foo { companion object { ... } }) have the same property. They are public fields the binary surface must preserve.

data class synthesis and componentN accessors

A Kotlin data class triggers the compiler to synthesize a fixed set of members alongside the declared fields:

data class Point(val x: Int, val y: Int)

becomes, at the JVM level, approximately:

public final class Point
    public Point(int x, int y)
    public final int getX()
    public final int getY()
    public final int component1()
    public final int component2()
    public final Point copy(int x, int y)
    public static Point copy$default(Point, int, int, int, Object)
    public boolean equals(Object)
    public int hashCode()
    public String toString()

Each synthesized member is part of the binary surface. The componentN accessors enable Kotlin destructuring (val (x, y) = point); they are numbered by parameter position. Reordering the fields in source renames the components: what was component1 becomes component2. The copy method takes the same parameters as the constructor. If a new field goes at the end, it appends a parameter to copy and keeps the copy$default synthetic helper. If the fields are reordered again, compiled callers that named-arg copy break.

A public data class would have to commit to its field order and its componentN numbering. It would also have to commit to the copy overload set and the synthesized equals/hashCode semantics for the SDK lifetime. This is more constraint than a Java record (where only the canonical accessor names and the equals/hashCode contract are guaranteed). It is also more constraint than a hand-rolled Java class (where the developer chooses which of these members exist).

Top-level functions and the Kt synthetic class

Kotlin allows functions and properties at file top level, outside any class:

// File: PathUtils.kt
package android.os

fun normalizePath(path: String): String = ...
const val PATH_SEPARATOR = "/"

kotlinc compiles this into a synthetic class whose name is the file name with Kt appended:

public final class PathUtilsKt
    public static String normalizePath(String)
    public static final String PATH_SEPARATOR

The class name is part of the binary surface. Renaming the source file renames the class; @file:JvmName("PathUtils") overrides the suffix. For Java callers, the static methods are reachable as PathUtilsKt.normalizePath(...) (or PathUtils.normalizePath(...) if the JvmName is set). For Kotlin callers, the synthetic class is invisible — they import the function directly.

A public top-level function in the framework would commit to a class name that did not exist in the source. Renaming the file would silently break compiled Java callers. Splitting the file would split the synthetic class into two synthetic classes, again breaking callers. Java has no equivalent: every static method in Java sits on a developer-named class, so the class identity is part of the source-level decision.

Boot classpath sharing forces one stdlib version on every app

Everything above describes how a single Kotlin source declaration produces a set of JVM artifacts that the framework would have to freeze. These artifacts are signatures, helpers, mangled names, and metadata blobs. There is a second binary-stability concern one layer beneath signature shape. The Android runtime model loads the public framework API into a classloader that every app on the device shares. A public Kotlin API would force kotlin-stdlib.jar into that shared classloader too.

The framework's public API ships as framework.jar (plus adjacent jars like framework-graphics.jar, framework-location.jar, ext.jar, telephony-common.jar) on the device's boot classpath. (services.jar is not among them: it sits on SYSTEMSERVERCLASSPATH and is loaded only by system_server.) The composition is configured by Soong via PRODUCT_BOOT_JARS. The default set is defined at build/make/target/product/default_art_config.mk:38. It contains framework-minus-apex, ext, telephony-common, framework-graphics, framework-location, and the per-APEX jars (ART, conscrypt, i18n, and the rest). At device boot, ART ahead-of-time compiles these jars into a boot image and the zygote process loads it into its address space.

com.android.internal.os.ZygoteInit.preloadClasses() at frameworks/base/core/java/com/android/internal/os/ZygoteInit.java:284 reads the /system/etc/preloaded-classes text file and eagerly initializes every named class. As a result, the boot image's class objects, static fields, and JIT-compiled code are resident in the zygote's heap before any app forks. Every app process started afterward is forked from that zygote and inherits the resolved class objects directly. android.app.Activity is literally the same class object in the zygote and in every app, with no per-app load step.

App-specific code sits one classloader below. An installed APK is loaded by dalvik.system.PathClassLoader (libcore/dalvik/src/main/java/dalvik/system/PathClassLoader.java:44) whose parent is the boot classloader. ClassLoader.loadClass() (libcore/ojluni/src/main/java/java/lang/ClassLoader.java:622) follows the standard parent-first delegation: it calls parent.loadClass(name) at line 630 before it ever calls findClass() on its own dex at line 642. Any class name that resolves in BOOTCLASSPATH wins over the same name in the app's APK.

For Java this is unproblematic. The framework's transitive dependencies on java.* and javax.* are themselves part of the JDK's strictly-versioned core. That core evolves under OpenJDK with explicit JLS compatibility guarantees. Apps cannot ship their own java.util.HashMap even if they wanted to. The classloader delegation hands every resolution back up to the platform copy by design.

For Kotlin it is the central sticking point. A suspend function on the public surface drags in kotlin.coroutines.Continuation. A Result<T>-returning method drags in kotlin.Result. Even a plain class written in Kotlin emits a @kotlin.Metadata annotation that the Kotlin reflection layer reads when an app calls Foo::class on the class. All of those types live in kotlin-stdlib.jar.

The verified state today: no boot classpath jar in AOSP links kotlin-stdlib. external/kotlinc/Android.bp:59 declares kotlin-stdlib as a java_import of the prebuilt jar, but the modules that depend on it are non-boot.

Soong's static_kotlin_stdlib property (documented in build/soong/java/base.go as "If true, package the kotlin stdlib into the jar. Defaults to true.") controls whether a Kotlin module bundles its own stdlib copy. SystemUI's plugin and shared subprojects set it to false. As a result, the stdlib becomes a compile-time-only dependency for them, and the containing APK supplies the single packaged copy.

The platform's production Kotlin (the permission subsystem, see "Where Kotlin Already Lives in AOSP" below) runs inside services.jar on SYSTEMSERVERCLASSPATH. That jar is loaded only by system_server, not on the boot classpath. Its stdlib is statically linked and jarjar-renamed, so no kotlin-stdlib reference reaches the shared classloader.

Adding the first public Kotlin signature inverts that. Suppose the framework jar exposes a Result<T> return type, a suspend parameter, or even just a public top-level function's synthetic Kt class with Kotlin metadata. Then it must link against kotlin-stdlib, and that kotlin-stdlib would have to ship inside the boot classpath. Every app process forked from the zygote would resolve kotlin.Result, kotlin.coroutines.Continuation, and the metadata-format types from the boot classpath. It would not resolve them from the version bundled in the app's own APK.

This is more disruptive than the Java analog because of where Kotlin sits on the version-stability spectrum. Apps today commonly ship with different kotlin-stdlib versions. One example is a library compiled against Kotlin 1.6 in the same APK as application code on Kotlin 2.0. R8/D8 at prebuilts/r8/r8.jar minifies the union into the APK's classes.dex.

Parent-first delegation means the on-device boot classpath's kotlin-stdlib wins regardless of which version the app's Gradle build selected. If the device's kotlin-stdlib is older than the app's, methods the app linked against may be absent and NoSuchMethodError surfaces at runtime. If it is newer with a tightened nullability or generic signature, the app's compiled call sites may fail bytecode verification. The app developer has no recourse from inside the APK because the resolution happens above their classloader.

The only existing AOSP precedent for working around this kind of conflict is classloader namespace isolation. WebView runs in a separate zygote, WebViewZygote at frameworks/base/core/java/android/webkit/WebViewZygote.java:32. So the WebView APK's transitive dependencies do not have to coexist with the main zygote's preloaded class set.

The cost is a second zygote process and a second copy of every shared library both processes touch. There is also an explicit inter- zygote contract for which classes are sharable. Replicating that pattern for "Kotlin-using" apps would mean one of two things. One is a per-stdlib-version zygote, which the system cannot predict at fork time. The other is a runtime classloader rewrite that lets each app see its own kotlin-stdlib while still resolving android.* from the boot. Neither exists today.

Java method-signature stability vs. Kotlin metadata pinning.

flowchart TB
    subgraph Java["Java public API"]
        JS["public void foo(int)"]
        JM["JVM signature<br/>foo(I)V"]
        JC["javac version<br/>does not change<br/>emitted signature"]
        JS --> JM --> JC
    end
    subgraph Kotlin["Kotlin public API"]
        KS["public fun foo(x: Int = 0)"]
        KM["JVM signatures<br/>foo(I)V<br/>foo()V (synthetic)<br/>+ kotlin.Metadata"]
        KC["kotlinc version + Kotlin<br/>metadata format must<br/>both stay frozen"]
        KS --> KM --> KC
    end

The contrast in that diagram is the engineering crux. For Java, a single source declaration maps to a single, well-defined JVM signature, and javac versions do not change that mapping. For Kotlin, a single source declaration maps to a set of JVM artifacts. These are signatures, synthetic helpers, mangled names, Continuation parameters, value-class hashes, and the kotlin.Metadata annotation blob. The Kotlin reflection and tooling layers parse that blob to reconstruct source-level semantics.

The shape of that set depends on the kotlinc version, the metadata format version, and the interop annotations the source uses. To freeze a Kotlin public API the way Java APIs are frozen, every piece of that machinery would need to be declared a binary contract. kotlinc cannot evolve any of them without breaking compiled callers. And, as the boot classpath section above showed, that contract would extend past the framework's own signatures. It would reach the kotlin-stdlib version that the device's shared classloader would force on every Kotlin-using app.

Toolchain Lock-In

The signature contract described in "The Public API Contract" is enforced by a Java-shaped toolchain. Even where individual tools happen to be written in Kotlin, their input and output formats are designed for the Java/JVM signature model.

Metalava lives at tools/metalava/. It is itself a Kotlin tool — 784 .kt files across its sub-modules. That metalava is written in Kotlin while it operates on a Java-shaped API is part of the constraint, not a contradiction. Metalava can consume Kotlin source to produce signatures. The signature format (defined in tools/metalava/FORMAT.md) can already express Kotlin modifiers (sealed, inline, value, suspend, data, operator, infix), Kotlin properties, parameter names, and default values.

But those extensions were designed for the androidx signature files, where the library source is Kotlin; the platform SDK surface does not use them. The current.txt for the android.* classes is marked // - style=java and contains no Kotlin construct. A Kotlin source file that used those features on the platform surface would be flattened to its JVM-visible projection or rejected by API lint. The flattened form loses the source-level semantics.

The flattening is informative. Metalava has a unified Item model. A class is an Item, a method is an Item, and a field is an Item. That model is intentionally language-neutral.

The PSI frontend is the default source model, and it reads both Java and Kotlin source. The Turbine frontend is an alternative Java-only source model. Both produce Items in the same shape. When metalava emits a signature, it walks the Items and writes them in the format spec.

A Kotlin data class Foo(val x: Int) is read by the PSI frontend. It is then projected to the equivalent Java declarations. These are a class with a final field-style accessor getX, a synthesized constructor, and the equals/hashCode/toString/copy/componentN cluster. The signature file shows the projection, not the source. The frozen-forever contract is the projection; the source is implementation detail.

This also means that an internal Kotlin source change does not show up in current.txt. Examples of such a change are refactoring a data class to add a new field, splitting a sealed hierarchy, and renaming a top-level function. This holds as long as the Kotlin members are not part of the public surface. Metalava only includes members it sees as public or protected and that are not annotated @hide. The Kotlin files under frameworks/base/core/ are all test code under core/tests/, which the API check never scans. The API-bearing core/java/ tree is pure Java, so no Kotlin declaration even reaches metalava there.

The metalava module layout shows the separation of concerns:

• tools/metalava/metalava/ — the main tool entry point.
• tools/metalava/metalava-model/ — abstract API model independent of any language frontend.
• tools/metalava/metalava-model-psi/ — the default source frontend for both Java and Kotlin (using JetBrains PSI).
• tools/metalava/metalava-model-source/ — generic source-based model.
• tools/metalava/metalava-model-text/ — text (signature file) frontend, used for round-tripping current.txt.
• tools/metalava/metalava-model-turbine/ — alternative Turbine-based Java-only frontend.
• tools/metalava/metalava-reporter/ — issue reporting subsystem.
• tools/metalava/metalava-testing/ — test utilities.
• tools/metalava/stub-annotations/ — annotation jar used in generated stubs.

The text model is the canonical one. PSI and Turbine exist to feed it. A future Kotlin-aware public API would need a text model that can express, and round-trip, every Kotlin construct it would admit on the public surface.

Documentation generation. The in-tree platform reference documentation pipeline is metalava plus Doclava (the historical Javadoc-derived tool at external/doclava/). Raw sources pass through metalava into stub sources, and Doclava renders the stubs into API docs. The pipeline is sketched in frameworks/base/api/ApiDocs.bp. Dackka, Google's newer Kotlin-aware doc tool, is used for AndroidX documentation but is not checked into AOSP.

Either way, the published documentation describes the Java-projection of Kotlin APIs. It does so because that is what app developers see in their IDE when they call into the platform. A Kotlin data class shows up in the docs with its synthesized equals, hashCode, toString, copy, and componentN methods listed individually. This is what Java callers see. The documentation can show source-level Kotlin shape only when the reader is in Kotlin mode; the underlying contract is still the JVM projection.

Hidden API enforcement is the second pillar of the Java-shaped toolchain. The blocklist is maintained in plain-text files under frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/:

• hiddenapi-unsupported.txt — the unsupported (formerly greylist) members: still accessible from every target SDK, but unsupported and subject to warnings.
• hiddenapi-unsupported-packages.txt — whole packages placed in that same unsupported category.
• hiddenapi-max-target-o.txt — APIs targeted at SDK O or earlier (legacy block).
• hiddenapi-max-target-p.txt — APIs targeted at SDK P or earlier.
• hiddenapi-max-target-q.txt — APIs targeted at SDK Q or earlier.
• hiddenapi-max-target-r-loprio.txt — APIs targeted at R or earlier, low priority.

Hidden members not named in any of these files default to the blocked category, the hard-denied case. So the lists carve out exemptions rather than declare the blocks.

A blocked Kotlin extension function appears as Lcom/example/UtilsKt;->extensionMethod(Lcom/example/Receiver;)V, not by its Kotlin source signature. Each line in these files is a JVM descriptor in the form Lpackage/Class;->method(Lpackage/Type;)Lpackage/Return;. The format is the same form used by dexdump, by ART's runtime checks, and by every tool that introspects compiled class files. Kotlin source compiles into JVM class files, so Kotlin code is reachable via these descriptors. But the descriptor uses the kotlinc-emitted shape, not the source-level Kotlin name.

The build system merges the source text files into a single generated CSV:

• out/soong/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-flags.csv — the build-time artifact, ~750k rows. Each row is a member descriptor plus a flag list (public-api, sdk, system-api, test-api, blocked, etc.).
• prebuilts/runtime/appcompat/hiddenapi-flags.csv — the prebuilt copy bundled with the host-side veridex/appcompat.sh APK scanner (~51 MB).

Sample rows from the generated file:

Landroid/Manifest$permission;-><init>()V,public-api,sdk,system-api,test-api
Landroid/Manifest$permission;->ACCEPT_HANDOVER:Ljava/lang/String;,public-api,sdk,system-api,test-api
Landroid/Manifest$permission;->ACCESSIBILITY_MOTION_EVENT_OBSERVING:Ljava/lang/String;,blocked,test-api

The CSV is consumed at build time by the hiddenapi tool (art/tools/hiddenapi/hiddenapi.cc), which stamps the flags into each dex file's HiddenapiClassData section. ART then reads those per-member dex flags at runtime. It never opens the CSV. When an app accesses Manifest.permission.ACCESSIBILITY_MOTION_EVENT_OBSERVING, the runtime checks the flags. blocked triggers a hard exception; the various max-target-* flags trigger softer warnings or version-gated blocks. The granularity is per-descriptor.

A Kotlin API emits multiple descriptors per source declaration. Examples are overloads from @JvmOverloads, the Companion accessor plus the @JvmStatic projection, and the value-class-mangled name plus an unmangled erased fallback. Such an API would multiply the entries needed to express the same source-level intent in this CSV.

jarjar rules. Several framework modules rewrite their dependency class names during build to avoid colliding with app-visible classes. The rules live in jarjar-rules.txt files wired in through Soong's jarjar_rules: property. The permission subsystem applies exactly this rewrite to its statically linked stdlib (frameworks/base/services/permission/jarjar-rules.txt renames kotlin.** to com.android.server.permission.jarjar.kotlin.**). The rewrite is viable there because the subsystem does not rely on Kotlin reflection over the renamed classes.

Kotlin metadata annotations (kotlin.Metadata) embed string references to the original class names. A jarjar rewrite that renames kotlin.collections.MapsKt to com.android.internal.kotlin.collections.MapsKt would mismatch with the metadata blob and break Kotlin reflection at runtime. Java has no equivalent embedded metadata; jarjar over Java is a straightforward textual rewrite.

@SystemApi and @UnsupportedAppUsage are processed by metalava and by the hidden API toolchain. @SystemApi widens the surface for platform-signed callers; the corresponding system-current.txt is its frozen signature. @UnsupportedAppUsage is the annotation framework code uses to mark members that should land in the hidden API CSV with a specific max-target flag. A Kotlin equivalent of these annotations would need both a Kotlin source-level annotation type and a metalava rule. The rule would project that annotation into the generated CSV correctly.

The annotations themselves come with subtle constraints. @SystemApi accepts client-type arguments (MODULE_LIBRARIES, PRIVILEGED_APPS, SYSTEM_SERVER) that gate which downstream consumers see the member. Metalava reads those arguments and routes the member into the appropriate signature surface. An incorrectly routed annotation leaks into the wrong current.txt, and the build's m checkapi step catches the leak.

For Java source, the annotation processing is unambiguous: the annotation sits on the declaration, metalava reads the AST node, the routing happens. For Kotlin source, metalava has to reach the same conclusion via a Kotlin source frontend. Any future Kotlin annotation that has source-level shape needs explicit support in the metalava annotation extraction logic in tools/metalava/.../ExtractAnnotations.kt. Examples are file-level annotations, target-class extensions, and repeating annotations with non-trivial retention semantics.

The out/soong/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-flags.csv artifact is the merge point of every input mentioned above. Source .txt blocklists, @SystemApi membership, @UnsupportedAppUsage annotations, and public-API stub descriptors all flow through Soong into a single descriptor-keyed table. The same machinery feeds prebuilts/runtime/appcompat/hiddenapi-flags.csv, the prebuilt table used by the host-side veridex/appcompat.sh APK scanner (no on-device runtime reads it). Any change to the descriptor shape, the flag vocabulary, or the way Kotlin members map to descriptors flows through this pipeline.

OEM, Vendor, and Mainline Constraints

The public API contract is not the only freeze in the system. Two adjacent surfaces — the vendor partition and Mainline modules — extend the "stable forever" property to additional layers.

Vendor partition freeze. When an OEM device launches with SDK level N, the vendor partition is built against the system-API and module-library surfaces frozen at that level. Subsequent OS upgrades on the same device (within Project Treble's framework-vendor split) must preserve binary compatibility with the existing vendor partition. The system-API surface acts as the binary contract between the framework (Java + Kotlin allowed internally, Java-shaped externally) and vendor code (typically C++, sometimes Java). A Kotlin emission shift on a @SystemApi class would break vendor partitions on every device that compiled against the previous shape.

Mainline APEX modules are the second freeze. A Mainline module is an APEX package containing platform components that ship through Play Store updates rather than full system OTAs. The architecture is documented in system/apex/docs/README.md (with supporting docs in system/apex/tests/README.md and system/apex/shim/README.md). Each Mainline module declares a min_sdk_version and is compiled against the module-library surface at that SDK level. The APEX-build rules live in build/soong/apex/apex.go and build/soong/android/apex.go, which together enforce that an APEX file does not depend on symbols outside its declared SDK floor.

A Mainline module ships in Play Store updates to a five-year-old device. It must still resolve every symbol it references against that device's frozen module-library surface. If the framework introduced a new Kotlin-shaped public method between SDK N and SDK N+3, the device at SDK N would not have it. The Mainline module either has to declare a higher min_sdk_version (losing reach) or stay Java-shaped (losing nothing).

kotlinc release cadence vs. AOSP cadence. Soong's Kotlin integration hard-pins a specific kotlinc version. The build's prebuilt kotlinc lives at external/kotlinc/, with version stamped in external/kotlinc/build.txt:

2.2.0-custom-branch-22

The pinning is enforced in Soong's compiler-flag plumbing:

• build/soong/java/kotlin.go — defines the Ninja rules for kotlinc invocation, kotlin-jar snapshotting, and incremental compilation.
• build/soong/java/kotlin_test.go — unit tests for those rules.
• build/soong/java/config/kotlin.go — declares the variables Soong uses to find kotlinc components (external/kotlinc/bin/kotlinc, external/kotlinc/lib/kotlin-stdlib.jar, external/kotlinc/lib/kotlin-compiler.jar, kapt, jvm-abi-gen). The Compose compiler plugin is wired in separately, as the kotlin-compose-compiler-plugin module referenced from build/soong/java/base.go.

The same config file forbids callers from overriding -no-jdk, -no-stdlib, or -language-version. The platform decides which Kotlin language version to compile against; individual modules cannot opt into a newer or older version. The kotlinc JVM is invoked with -J-Xmx8192M to handle the heap pressure of compiling the platform's Kotlin modules in a single pass.

The pinned kotlinc version is the source of a coupling problem. AOSP picks a version, validates it across the tree, ships it. Public APIs compiled with that kotlinc emit the JVM signatures that version produces. Upgrading kotlinc to a newer version could change the emitted signatures of any public Kotlin class. Reasons for an upgrade include a Compose update, a Kotlin language feature the platform wants internally, or a security fix.

The current solution to that risk is to keep public classes Java. The risk does not arise.

For internal Kotlin (services, SystemUI, Settings, apps), the kotlinc pin is fine. Everything internal recompiles when kotlinc is upgraded. The frozen artifacts are the public stubs and the hidden API CSV. Both are regenerated as part of the kotlinc bump. The API and hidden API checks validate the changes before the bump lands.

Consider what would happen if the framework added a single Kotlin public method to android.os.SomeClass. This is a concrete example of the cadence problem. The method ships in SDK level N, compiled by kotlinc 2.2.0. The frozen artifact at prebuilts/sdk/N/public/api/android.txt records the JVM signature kotlinc 2.2.0 produced. Devices launch with SDK N and bake that artifact into their stub jar.

A year later, AOSP picks up kotlinc 2.4.0 to enable a new Compose feature. Suppose kotlinc 2.4.0's emission of the same source class produces a different JVM signature, even slightly, even for an opaque mangling reason. Then apps that compiled against the SDK N stub will fail to resolve the method on devices that run the new framework.

The framework has two options. It can keep the old kotlinc emission shape pinned, which defeats the purpose of the upgrade. Or it can ship a compatibility shim that forwards the new shape to the old shape, which multiplies the surface. Java has neither problem because javac does not have feature versions that affect emitted signatures.

The vendor-side mirror of the kotlinc problem is that vendor partitions are typically built once, at device launch. They are not rebuilt for the life of the device. A vendor service that links against a framework Kotlin API gets the kotlinc-N emission baked in. When the framework is updated to kotlinc N+1 via an OS upgrade, the vendor partition still expects kotlinc-N emission. The framework cannot recompile the vendor partition. Java avoids this entirely; Kotlin-on-the-public-surface would create a new freeze axis (kotlinc emission shape) that has no counterpart in the vendor-partition contract today.

The Mainline picture sharpens the problem because Mainline modules ship more frequently than the OS. A Mainline APEX built today targets a min_sdk_version of (say) Android 11. It must run on every device at SDK 11 or higher. If the framework introduced a Kotlin public API at SDK 12 and the Mainline module wants to use it, the module either:

1. Raises its min_sdk_version to 12 (losing reach across older devices).
2. Uses runtime reflection to call the API conditionally (defeating compile-time type checking).
3. Stays on the equivalent Java API.

Option 3 is the path of least resistance. The inventory above shows this: Mainline modules are Java-shaped on their entry points, even when their internal implementations are Kotlin.

The historical context matters as well. Project Treble formalized the framework-vendor split, and the system-API surface was retrofitted to be a stable contract across that split. The Mainline initiative formalized the framework-module split, and the module-library surface was added on top of system-API to give modules a controlled inter-module contract. Each new freeze axis was added with explicit signature management, explicit toolchain support, and explicit test infrastructure. Adding "Kotlin emission shape" as a fourth freeze axis would require equivalent work — which has not happened.

For deeper context on the APEX format and update flow, see Chapter 54 — Mainline Modules at the repo root.

Where Kotlin Already Lives in AOSP

Kotlin's role in the platform is substantial but localized. The inventory introduced in "The Asymmetry" can be expanded with the role each location plays:

Path	Kotlin files	Role
frameworks/base/packages/SystemUI/	8,896	System UI shell: lock screen, notifications, quick settings, status bar, system bars, Compose for UI
packages/apps/Settings/	2,300	Settings app
packages/apps/Launcher3/	1,326	Launcher home and recents
cts/	1,209	Compatibility Test Suite (Kotlin used freely in tests)
frameworks/base/services/	292	Production Kotlin all in services/permission/; the rest is tests — no other system service uses production Kotlin
frameworks/base/core/	45	All test code under core/tests/; zero production Kotlin in core/java/
tools/metalava/	784	The signature tool itself is Kotlin

Within frameworks/base/services/, the production Kotlin is concentrated in the permission access subsystem introduced in Android 13. Three representative files illustrate the shape:

AccessCheckingService.kt — frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessCheckingService.kt. This is the entry-point class for the new permission stack. It extends SystemService, registers manager interfaces with LocalServices, and exposes its state via the getState { ... } scope helper. The relevant fragment:

@Keep
class AccessCheckingService(context: Context) : SystemService(context) {
    @Volatile private lateinit var state: AccessState
    private val stateLock = Any()
    ...
    override fun onStart() {
        appOpService = AppOpService(this)
        permissionService = PermissionService(this)
        ...
        LocalServices.addService(AppOpsCheckingServiceInterface::class.java, appOpService)
        LocalServices.addService(PermissionManagerServiceInterface::class.java, permissionService)

It is safely Kotlin because every interface it presents to external callers — AppOpsCheckingServiceInterface, PermissionManagerServiceInterface, AppFunctionAccessServiceInterface — is a Java interface registered into a Java-shaped service registry. Other system code calls into those Java interfaces and never sees a Kotlin class. The service's binder surface (defined in IPermissionManager.aidl and friends) is AIDL, which is Java-shaped by construction.

The internal implementation is unapologetically Kotlin-idiomatic. Near the bottom of the file:

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
internal inline fun <T> getState(action: GetStateScope.() -> T): T {
    contract { callsInPlace(action, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE) }
    return GetStateScope(state).action()
}

This single declaration uses three Kotlin features that would each be problematic on a public surface. The first is a function type with receiver (GetStateScope.() -> T), which has no Java equivalent. The second is an inline function with a reified-adjacent lambda parameter that gets inlined into every caller's bytecode. The third is the experimental contract API from kotlin.contracts, which is itself opt-in and source-level only. The function is internal, the package is com.android.server.permission.access (server-only), and the only callers are other Kotlin classes in the same package. Every one of the three problematic features is fine here because the boundary is intra-Kotlin within a single subsystem.

Compare with how the same pattern would have to be expressed if getState were on a public Java surface. The inline function would have to become a regular method (no inlining benefit). The function type with receiver would have to become an explicit GetStateScope parameter. The contract would have no equivalent. The result would be uglier and slower than either the Kotlin original or what an equivalent Java design would produce. This is one of the reasons the team chose to keep the implementation Kotlin and the boundary Java.

AccessPolicy.kt — frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessPolicy.kt. The AccessPolicy class indexes a map of SchemePolicy implementations and delegates per-scheme work to subclasses. The relevant declaration:

class AccessPolicy
private constructor(
    private val schemePolicies: IndexedMap<String, IndexedMap<String, SchemePolicy>>
)

with an abstract SchemePolicy base class declared later in the file. The abstract-class-plus-subclasses pattern is purely internal. AppIdPermissionPolicy, DevicePermissionPolicy, AppIdAppOpPolicy, PackageAppOpPolicy, and AppIdAppFunctionAccessPolicy are all plain public Kotlin classes (Kotlin has no package-private visibility). But they stay confined to the permission subsystem by build visibility. The library's Android.bp sets visibility: ["//frameworks/base/services"], and none of them appears in any signature file.

Permission.kt — frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/permission/Permission.kt. A data class modeling a single permission entry with a companion object of constants:

data class Permission(
    val permissionInfo: PermissionInfo,
    val isReconciled: Boolean,
    val type: Int,
    val appId: Int,
    @Suppress("ArrayInDataClass") val gids: IntArray = EmptyArray.INT,
    val areGidsPerUser: Boolean = false
) {
    ...
    companion object {
        const val TYPE_MANIFEST = 0
        const val TYPE_DYNAMIC = 2

        fun typeToString(type: Int): String = ...
    }
}

This file shows the features that would be a public-API liability: data class synthesizing equals, hashCode, toString, copy, componentN; default parameter values; companion-object constants. All are present here without consequence, because nothing outside services/permission/ references Permission by type.

Permission subsystem testing. The services/tests/ Kotlin files round out the picture. JUnit's runner is Java; when a Kotlin test wants a @BeforeClass setup, the Java runner needs a static method on the test class. Kotlin test code therefore puts the setup inside a companion object and annotates it @JvmStatic. The test utility files in services/tests/displayservicetests/ use @JvmOverloads to expose default-parameter helpers to Java test code that has not been migrated to Kotlin.

These usages do not appear in production, because production Kotlin in AOSP only calls into Java. Only the Java test runner actually needs to reach into Kotlin from outside.

A few additional notes on where Kotlin appears help round out the picture:

The CTS Kotlin tests. Roughly 1,200 Kotlin files live under cts/. CTS validates that an OEM build conforms to the Android compatibility definition. Tests in CTS are necessarily Java-callable from the test runner, but the test bodies themselves can be Kotlin. CTS uses Kotlin freely because the tests do not ship in the OS — they run against the OS. The frozen-forever constraint does not apply.

Settings, Launcher3, and the app layer. These apps ship with the system image but are functionally apps. They compile against the public SDK and share the same lifecycle constraints as third-party apps. Their Kotlin use is governed by the same rules as any well-managed Kotlin codebase. The ABI between Settings and the framework is the public + system-API surface — Java-shaped — even though Settings' internal classes are heavily Kotlin.

SystemUI's role. SystemUI is the system_server-adjacent process that hosts the lock screen, notifications, quick settings, and system bars. It is the largest Kotlin codebase in AOSP at 8,896 files. SystemUI's interface to the rest of the platform is via well-defined boundaries: AIDL for binder calls, content providers for shared state, intents for activity launches. None of those boundaries surface Kotlin types as parameters. SystemUI can refactor freely; the ABI it presents to the rest of the system is bounded by AIDL and the platform's intent contracts.

Tests across frameworks/base/services/. The same Kotlin-test/Java-runner interop pattern noted under @JvmOverloads, @JvmStatic, and "Permission subsystem testing" appears throughout services/tests/; see those subsections.

frameworks/base/core/ Kotlin. The 45 files here are all test code under frameworks/base/core/tests/ — there is zero production Kotlin in the API-bearing core/java/ tree. Nothing there can appear as a public-API entry in current.txt, because metalava reads the production source and the production source is pure Java. In principle, Kotlin source could sit in core/java/ as long as it stayed out of the public API surface. The API check is what enforces that boundary. But today none does.

The kotlin-stdlib linkage. kotlin-stdlib is not on the boot classpath at all. The one production consumer in the platform is the permission subsystem. It statically links the stdlib into its library (frameworks/base/services/permission/Android.bp). That library lands in services.jar on SYSTEMSERVERCLASSPATH, loaded only by system_server. The subsystem also jarjar-renames every stdlib class to com.android.server.permission.jarjar.kotlin.** (frameworks/base/services/permission/jarjar-rules.txt).

Stdlib types like kotlin.collections.MapsKt, kotlin.coroutines.Continuation, and kotlin.Result are therefore not reachable from app processes. A future Kotlin-on-the-public-surface story would need to decide whether stdlib types are part of the public API. They would be, transitively, through any public method that returns a stdlib type. The alternative is that the public API can use only a vetted subset of stdlib.

The Kotlin Features Hardest for a Public Surface

The ABI gap section walked through individual emission mechanics. This section steps back and groups the same features by the kind of design pressure they put on a frozen public surface.

Companion objects. As detailed in the @JvmStatic subsection of "The Java/Kotlin ABI Gap", every companion object pins a choice. The choice is whether to expose statics on the outer class. The choice is observable in current.txt; once made it cannot be undone. For internal code the default — Java callers go through Foo.Companion — is fine because there are no Java callers. For a public class, the choice is permanent and influences the IDE experience of every app developer.

There is also a downstream subtlety. Companion-object members marked @JvmStatic are duplicated in the bytecode, once on the companion class and once on the outer class. Any reflective lookup of the member sees both copies. Tooling that walks the class hierarchy (Hilt-style dependency injection, mock generators, runtime annotation scanners) has to reckon with the duplication.

Default arguments. Detailed under the @JvmOverloads subsection. The frozen-forever consequence has two parts. Reordering parameters in a public Kotlin function would silently break previously synthesized overloads. Adding @JvmOverloads later (or removing it) changes the size of the overload set.

There is a related concern around evolution. Even within Kotlin, adding a new defaulted parameter at the end of an existing function is source-compatible but not always binary-compatible. The reason is that the synthetic $default helper takes a bitmask whose width is parameter-count-dependent. A function that crosses an internal kotlinc width threshold gets a different $default synthetic shape and requires recompilation of all callers. Java has no equivalent; you either add a new overload or you do not.

Inline classes / value classes. Detailed under the value-class subsection. The mangling scheme depends on kotlinc. The inferred JVM signature of every method that takes or returns a value class is a hash, not a stable string. For a public API, the entire mangling discipline would need to be declared a binary contract that kotlinc could not evolve.

There is a second-order concern as well: value classes "unbox" at certain call boundaries and "box" at others. The exact unboxing rules are also a kotlinc emission decision that affects the JVM signatures observable to Java callers. These rules decide when a UserId is passed as a long versus when it is passed as an object reference.

Typealiases. Kotlin typealiases are source-level only. typealias UserId = Long resolves to Long at the JVM level — no signature impact. They are entirely safe in internal Kotlin and also safe at the public boundary, provided metalava is taught to expand them before emitting current.txt. Today metalava does this for the Kotlin source it consumes. The risk is purely tooling.

The flip side is that a typealias does not carry its own identity into the API. Two typealiases that resolve to the same underlying type are indistinguishable at the JVM level. So current.txt can only ever show the resolved type, not the alias the source author used. For a public API where naming is part of the contract, this is a source-level pleasantry that must be flattened away at the API boundary.

suspend functions. Detailed under the suspend subsection. The Continuation parameter and the Object erased return type encode kotlinc's choice of coroutine lowering. For a frozen public API the lowering would need to be a contract.

The lowering also entangles the public API with the coroutines runtime. The Continuation interface lives in kotlin.coroutines. But the actual coroutine machinery (dispatchers, contexts, cancellation, structured concurrency) lives in kotlinx.coroutines, a separate library. That library has its own version cadence and is not part of the boot classpath. A public suspend API would have to either declare which coroutine runtime is the implicit contract, ship its own runtime, or remain agnostic. All of these are non-trivial decisions.

Nullability annotations. Kotlin's T? vs T is reflected in JVM method signatures as @Nullable/@NonNull annotations (typically the JetBrains annotations org.jetbrains.annotations.Nullable and .NotNull). For Java callers, these annotations are advisory — the bytecode signature is the same with or without them. For Kotlin callers consuming a Java API, the annotations matter: they determine whether Kotlin infers T or T?.

Public framework Java uses the hidden platform annotations android.annotation.NonNull/android.annotation.Nullable to express the same intent, which metalava projects into androidx-flavored annotations in the generated stubs. Migrating to Kotlin source would either preserve those annotations explicitly or rely on kotlinc to emit JetBrains-flavor annotations. Either way, the framework's nullability story would have to declare which annotation namespace is the contract. There is also a quieter concern around platform types. When Kotlin code consumes a Java API without nullability annotations, the parameter or return type becomes a "platform type" with no compile-time null check. The reverse — a Kotlin public API consumed from Java — drops the nullability information entirely unless metalava is taught to project it into Java-callable annotations.

Sealed classes and sealed interfaces. A Kotlin sealed class restricts subclassing to a known set of types declared in the same file or module. The bytecode marks the class with a kotlin.Metadata flag, and Kotlin's exhaustive when checking relies on it. From Java, the sealing is invisible at the language level. A Java caller can extend the sealed class if the source-level subclass restriction is not enforced by the JVM.

kotlinc only emits the JVM PermittedSubclasses attribute when it targets JVM 17+. So a public Kotlin sealed class's enforcement floor depends on the kotlinc target version, which is itself a freeze axis. A public Kotlin sealed class would have to commit to a specific sealing semantics that survives both Kotlin and Java consumers across the SDK lifetime.

Extension functions. A Kotlin extension function — fun String.lastSegment(): String — compiles to a static method whose first parameter is the receiver. The class containing the static method is named after the source file (UtilsKt, by default). For Java callers, the extension function is just a static method on a synthetic class. For Kotlin callers, it is reachable via dot-notation on the receiver.

Adding a public extension function to the framework would put a new static method on a new (or existing) Kt class. Removing it would delete the method. The choices about which file the extension lives in and whether the receiver is the first or last parameter are all observable in current.txt.

In every case, the feature is convenient internally and constrained externally. The recurring theme is the same one the ABI section described. Kotlin's source-level abstractions are richer than Java's. The cost of that richness is paid at compile time, when a single declaration is mapped into a set of JVM artifacts. The exact composition of that set depends on the compiler. A frozen-forever surface needs each artifact to be individually nameable, individually citable, and individually preserved across every future compiler upgrade.

What Adoption Would Require

This is a snapshot of constraints, not a roadmap. If the AOSP project decided to admit Kotlin on the public framework API surface, the following list captures what would need to be in place. Items are listed in dependency order: each later item presupposes the earlier ones.

1. A stable Kotlin metadata format declared as a binary contract. The kotlin.Metadata annotation embedded in every Kotlin class file encodes source-level shape (sealed hierarchies, nullability, default values, suspend lowering) that Kotlin reflection and tooling consume. Today the format is versioned and kotlinc-coupled. The Kotlin community has discussed binary stability through KEEP (Kotlin Evolution and Enhancement Process) proposals.

   For AOSP to consume Kotlin on the public surface, the metadata format would have to be a declared, externally-versioned binary contract. That contract would need explicit backward and forward compatibility guarantees. It would also need a deprecation policy that matches AOSP's ten-year horizon. The current per-kotlin.Metadata-version compatibility behavior is "kotlinc N can read metadata from kotlinc N-K for some bounded K". That bound is enough for Gradle-driven Kotlin projects that recompile frequently, but not for ten years.

2. A Kotlin-aware metalava pipeline for the platform surface. The signature format defined in tools/metalava/FORMAT.md already has syntax for Kotlin modifiers (sealed, inline, value, suspend, data, operator, infix), Kotlin properties, and default arguments. The syntax was built for the androidx signature files, whose sources are Kotlin. The text model in tools/metalava/metalava-model-text/ parses those tokens today. What does not exist is their adoption on the platform SDK surface.

   The platform current.txt is style=java. Each Kotlin construct admitted there is an API design problem in itself. The syntax must round-trip through the text model and survive future kotlinc evolution. It must also cover the gaps the format still has (companion object shape, nullability as a first-class contract). The comparison logic in tools/metalava/metalava/src/main/.../ComparisonVisitor.kt would need rules for which Kotlin-specific changes constitute breaking deltas. Today metalava reads Kotlin source via its PSI model (tools/metalava/metalava-model-psi/) but emits a Java-projection signature for the platform.

3. Hidden API enforcement that tracks Kotlin descriptors. The CSV at out/soong/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-flags.csv uses raw JVM descriptors. Kotlin classes already appear in it via their kotlinc-emitted shapes. But the per-source-feature multiplicity (one @JvmOverloads declaration produces N descriptor rows) makes per-source policy hard to express.

   A descriptor-level CSV would need a higher-level companion. That companion would map "source declaration X is in the public API" to "JVM descriptors {d1, d2, ..., dN} must all be flagged consistently". Without it, an author who updates a Kotlin public API cannot easily confirm that all the resulting descriptors landed in the right hidden API category.

4. Updated documentation tooling. Dackka (Google's Kotlin-aware doc tool, used for AndroidX and not checked into AOSP) understands Kotlin source today. But the platform reference docs would need a shared model. In that model, the Kotlin source-level view and the Java JVM-projection view are both first-class.

   App developers using Java tooling against a Kotlin platform API must see a coherent Javadoc; app developers using Kotlin tooling must see source-level Kotlin signatures. The current model assumes the underlying API is Java-shaped. A genuinely bilingual API surface implies bilingual documentation. The toolchain would have to understand this. For instance, a Kotlin data class should be rendered with its source-level fields when viewed from Kotlin. It should be rendered with its synthesized componentN methods when viewed from Java.

5. An API Council ruling on naming convention rules. The lint rules in tools/metalava/API-LINT.md are calibrated to Java naming conventions (is/get accessor pairs, plural collection methods, setOnXxxListener callback registration patterns). Kotlin idioms — property syntax, operator overloads, infix functions, extension functions — would need explicit acceptance or rejection rules, ratified by the API Council as policy. The rules also have to compose with the Java-callable projection. A Kotlin var on a public class compiles to getX/setX Java accessors. But the rule body would need to specify whether the Kotlin source uses var, the Java accessor names, or both as the canonical contract.

6. kotlinc release alignment with AOSP cadence. A version of kotlinc that the framework can adopt without observable signature shifts on any public class. This is the strongest constraint because it ties two independent organizations' release cycles together. AOSP cuts a major SDK roughly annually; the kotlinc release train is faster and not aligned to SDK boundaries.

   The practical mitigation is to declare a "frozen kotlinc version per public API surface", a Kotlin equivalent of LOCAL_SDK_VERSION. Then every shipped SDK is bound to the kotlinc that produced its signatures. Implementing that requires Soong machinery to track which kotlinc compiled which current.txt and to enforce the binding for downstream Mainline modules.

7. Tooling for migration and audit. Even if all of the above were in place, the AOSP project would face a one-time migration cost. Each existing Java public-API class proposed for Kotlinization would need a side-by-side audit. The audit would confirm that the source declarations, when run through the new Kotlin-aware metalava, produce the same current.txt entries as the Java source did. Anywhere the entries differ is a binary break. The audit tooling does not exist today.

8. A coroutines-runtime decision for suspend APIs. As discussed in "The Kotlin Features Hardest for a Public Surface", a public suspend API ties consumers to a coroutines runtime. AOSP would have to choose one of three options. Option (a) is to declare kotlinx.coroutines as a frozen platform library, with all the binary stability that entails. Option (b) is to ship its own minimal coroutine runtime. Option (c) is to avoid suspend entirely on the public surface.

   Each option is a multi-year commitment.

This list is a snapshot of the constraints visible from inside the AOSP tree today. It is not a prediction of how (or whether) these constraints will be addressed. It is not advocacy for any of the items being undertaken.

Try It

The five exercises below let you verify the appendix's claims against the actual AOSP checkout. Each uses commands that work from the AOSP root.

Exercise C-1: Inventory Kotlin in the platform tree

The asymmetry table at the top of the appendix is generated by counting .kt files in selected paths. Run the same find commands to confirm the numbers in your local tree. Then compare them against the inventory table in this appendix.

cd $AOSP

echo "frameworks/base/services Kotlin: $(find frameworks/base/services -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "frameworks/base/core Kotlin:     $(find frameworks/base/core -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "packages/SystemUI Kotlin:        $(find frameworks/base/packages/SystemUI -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "packages/apps/Settings Kotlin:   $(find packages/apps/Settings -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "packages/apps/Launcher3 Kotlin:  $(find packages/apps/Launcher3 -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "cts Kotlin:                      $(find cts -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "frameworks/base total Kotlin:    $(find frameworks/base -name '*.kt' | wc -l)"
echo "frameworks/base total Java:      $(find frameworks/base -name '*.java' | wc -l)"

Expected output: numbers in the same orders of magnitude as the table. Both frameworks/base/core and frameworks/base/services are small relative to the Java total. The exact counts will drift as the tree evolves.

Exercise C-2: Inspect a public API signature file

Open frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt and look at the structure. It is large, so use a pager.

cd $AOSP

# Header
head -5 frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt

# Find a class entry
grep -n 'public class Activity ' frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt

# Locate the Java source for that class
find frameworks/base/core -name 'Activity.java' -path '*/java/android/app/*'

# Confirm the file is Java
head -3 frameworks/base/core/java/android/app/Activity.java

What to look for: the signature file opens with // Signature format: 6.0, then a // - style=java marker line, then package android {. Every class is described in Java-flavor syntax. The Activity.java source file should exist at frameworks/base/core/java/android/app/Activity.java and be Java, not Kotlin. (Note that android.Manifest, whose entry also appears near the top of current.txt, has no checked-in source file at all. aapt2 generates it at build time from the permission declarations in frameworks/base/core/res/AndroidManifest.xml.)

Exercise C-3: Trace a Kotlin-implementing service across binder

AccessCheckingService is one of the few production Kotlin services in the platform. Confirm that despite its Kotlin source, the contract it presents to other system code is Java-shaped.

cd $AOSP

# The Kotlin source
ls -l frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessCheckingService.kt

# Confirm it extends SystemService
grep -n 'class AccessCheckingService' \
    frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessCheckingService.kt

# The Java interfaces it registers with LocalServices
grep -rn 'PermissionManagerServiceInterface\|AppOpsCheckingServiceInterface' \
    frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessCheckingService.kt

# Find the AIDL definition for the binder surface
find frameworks/base -name 'IPermissionManager.aidl'

What to look for: AccessCheckingService extends the Java SystemService base class and registers Java interfaces. The corresponding binder surface is defined in an .aidl file that compiles to Java stubs. The Kotlin implementation never crosses the process boundary as Kotlin.

Exercise C-4: Find @JvmStatic / @JvmOverloads in AOSP

These two annotations exist to make Kotlin code callable from Java. Production framework code rarely needs them, because production Kotlin calls into Java (not the reverse). Verify the pattern by searching the tree.

cd $AOSP

# Where does @JvmStatic appear in services?
grep -rln '@JvmStatic' frameworks/base/services/ | head -10

# Where does @JvmOverloads appear in services?
grep -rln '@JvmOverloads' frameworks/base/services/ | head -10

# Same searches scoped to production (non-test) code only
grep -rln '@JvmStatic' frameworks/base/services/ | grep -v '/tests/' | head -10
grep -rln '@JvmOverloads' frameworks/base/services/ | grep -v '/tests/' | head -10

What to look for: every hit in the first two searches is inside a tests/ subdirectory. The third and fourth searches return no results. The takeaway: AOSP service Kotlin is one-direction Kotlin-to-Java. It does not need to project itself back into Java-callable shape. This is why @JvmStatic and @JvmOverloads are absent from production. A public API would need these annotations everywhere, and would have to commit to their emission shape forever.

Exercise C-5: Inspect metalava

Metalava is the tool that defines the public API contract. Read its top-level layout, its format spec, and its compatibility doc.

cd $AOSP

# Top-level layout
ls tools/metalava/

# Main readme
head -40 tools/metalava/README.md

# Format spec for current.txt
wc -l tools/metalava/FORMAT.md
head -40 tools/metalava/FORMAT.md

# Compatibility policy
head -40 tools/metalava/COMPATIBILITY.md

# API lint rules
head -40 tools/metalava/API-LINT.md

# Module count
ls -d tools/metalava/metalava-* | wc -l

# Total Kotlin source size of the tool itself
find tools/metalava -name '*.kt' | wc -l

What to look for: the tool is itself Kotlin (the .kt count should be roughly 800). FORMAT.md contains "Support Kotlin Modifiers" and "Support Default Values" sections, which are Kotlin-specific syntax built for the androidx signature files. Yet the platform's current.txt is style=java and uses none of it. The compatibility policy is what gates whether a change to current.txt is allowed. It does not have a separate Kotlin track. The module list (metalava-* directories) shows the language frontends and the text model. Running metalava as a tool requires a built binary and is not part of this exercise.

Summary

The asymmetry between Kotlin's role inside AOSP and its absence from the public API surface is not a stylistic preference. It is a consequence of four constraints. They all bear on the same artifact, the per-SDK frozen signature snapshot in prebuilts/sdk/<N>/public/api/android.txt and its live source frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt.

The first constraint is the lifetime of the contract. Devices in service stay on a fixed SDK level for the better part of a decade. Every signature in current.txt must remain compatible across every kotlinc release, every Kotlin metadata format revision, every standard-library change, for that lifetime. No comparable lifetime constraint applies to internal Kotlin, where any change in compiler-emitted signatures is absorbed by recompilation in the next build.

The second constraint is the binary mapping. Java source declarations map to JVM signatures one-to-one. Kotlin source declarations map to a set of JVM artifacts whose composition depends on the compiler. These artifacts are overloads, mangled names, companion accessors, synthetic helpers, Continuation parameters, and metadata blobs. Freezing the set requires freezing each piece independently. The "Java/Kotlin ABI Gap" section walked through eight feature categories where this multiplicity manifests; each category is independently a freezing problem.

The third constraint is the toolchain. Metalava, hidden API enforcement, Doclava, jarjar, and the @SystemApi/@UnsupportedAppUsage annotation pipeline all operate on JVM descriptors. They consume Kotlin source (metalava can read it) but their output is the language-neutral, JVM-shaped contract — current.txt text, descriptor CSVs, Javadoc HTML. A Kotlin-shape public API would require parallel tooling that admits Kotlin constructs as first-class. The toolchain itself is not in opposition to Kotlin; it simply does not yet model the Kotlin source layer.

The fourth constraint is runtime sharing. Framework jars load into a single boot classpath shared with every app process forked from the zygote. Parent-first classloader delegation means any type in BOOTCLASSPATH wins over the same name in the app's APK. Putting Kotlin signatures on the public API forces kotlin-stdlib into the boot classpath, which then overrides whatever kotlin-stdlib version each app's Gradle build bundled.

The OEM cannot fix this from inside the device's image. The app developer cannot fix it from inside the APK. The only escape is WebView-style per-process zygote isolation, which AOSP only pays the cost of in one well-justified case today.

The result is what the inventory shows. Kotlin lives in the app and UI layer, in test code (including everything Kotlin under frameworks/base/core/), in metalava itself, and in the permission subsystem. It does not appear in current.txt because the cost of putting it there has not yet been paid in full.

Key Source Files Reference

Path	Purpose
tools/metalava/	The signature tool. Itself Kotlin (784 .kt files); emits language-neutral signature text.
tools/metalava/FORMAT.md	Specification of the current.txt text format.
tools/metalava/COMPATIBILITY.md	Compatibility policy enforced by metalava on signature drift.
tools/metalava/API-LINT.md	API lint rule documentation.
frameworks/base/core/api/current.txt	Public API signature snapshot (android.*).
frameworks/base/services/api/current.txt	API surface for system services.
frameworks/base/api/	Build logic (api.go, Android.bp, StubLibraries.bp, ApiDocs.bp) that orchestrates signature generation.
prebuilts/sdk/<N>/public/api/android.txt	Frozen public API signature for SDK level N (e.g. prebuilts/sdk/34/public/api/android.txt).
prebuilts/sdk/<N>/public/android.jar	Frozen stub jar apps compile against at SDK level N.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-unsupported.txt	Source list: unsupported (formerly greylist) members — accessible but warned.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-unsupported-packages.txt	Source list: whole packages in the unsupported category.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-max-target-o.txt	Source blocklist: legacy O-or-earlier APIs.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-max-target-p.txt	Source blocklist: P-or-earlier APIs.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-max-target-q.txt	Source blocklist: Q-or-earlier APIs.
frameworks/base/boot/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-max-target-r-loprio.txt	Source blocklist: R-or-earlier APIs (low priority).
out/soong/hiddenapi/hiddenapi-flags.csv	Generated descriptor enforcement table.
prebuilts/runtime/appcompat/hiddenapi-flags.csv	Prebuilt descriptor table for the host-side veridex/appcompat.sh APK scanner (~51 MB).
build/soong/java/kotlin.go	Soong kotlinc Ninja rules (compile, snapshot, incremental).
build/soong/java/kotlin_test.go	Unit tests for the kotlinc rules.
build/soong/java/config/kotlin.go	Soong configuration: kotlinc binary paths, plugins, forbidden flags.
external/kotlinc/	Pinned prebuilt kotlinc.
external/kotlinc/build.txt	Pinned kotlinc version stamp (2.2.0-custom-branch-22).
external/kotlinc/bin/kotlinc	The kotlinc binary.
external/kotlinc/lib/kotlin-stdlib.jar	Kotlin standard library prebuilt; non-boot dependency today (no boot classpath jar links it).
external/kotlinc/Android.bp	kotlin-stdlib java_import declaration (line 59).
build/make/target/product/default_art_config.mk	PRODUCT_BOOT_JARS default composition (line 38).
frameworks/base/core/java/com/android/internal/os/ZygoteInit.java	preloadClasses() reads /system/etc/preloaded-classes (line 284).
libcore/dalvik/src/main/java/dalvik/system/PathClassLoader.java	App classloader; parent is the boot classloader (line 44).
libcore/ojluni/src/main/java/java/lang/ClassLoader.java	loadClass() parent-first delegation (line 622).
frameworks/base/core/java/android/webkit/WebViewZygote.java	Separate zygote that isolates WebView's classloader from the main one (line 32).
external/kotlinc/lib/kotlin-compiler.jar	Kotlin compiler jar.
external/kotlinc/lib/compose-compiler-plugin.jar	Compose compiler plugin.
external/kotlinc/lib/kotlin-annotation-processing.jar	kapt (Kotlin annotation processing).
external/kotlinc/lib/jvm-abi-gen.jar	JVM ABI generation plugin.
frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessCheckingService.kt	Sample production Kotlin service; extends SystemService.
frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessPolicy.kt	Sample policy hierarchy; abstract SchemePolicy plus concrete subclasses.
frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/permission/Permission.kt	Sample data class with companion object.
frameworks/base/services/permission/java/com/android/server/permission/access/AccessPersistence.kt	Production companion object usage example.
system/apex/docs/README.md	APEX/Mainline binary stability docs.
system/apex/tests/README.md	APEX test infrastructure docs.
system/apex/shim/README.md	APEX shim module docs.
build/soong/apex/apex.go	Main Soong APEX module definition.
build/soong/android/apex.go	Cross-cutting APEX utilities.